Introduction
Food security, a key element of the Sustainable Development Goals and sub-Saharan
African policies, was first defined in 1974 after famines in the Sahel and Darfur. Initially focused
on food production and availability, the concept has evolved to include the physical and economic
access to adequate, safe, and nutritious food that meets dietary needs and preferences for a healthy
life (FAO, 1996). Global food insecurity is rapidly increasing. In 2021 an estimated 29.3 per cent
of the global population (2.3 billion people) was moderately or severely food insecure while 828
million people in the world (10.5 per cent of the world population) faced hunger (FAO: Rome,
2022). There are significant regional disparities and Africa bears the heaviest burden. Food
insecurity has been undermining the health and well-being of a growing number of older adultsin
Sub-Saharan Africa. Malnutrition rates are rising due to deteriorating purchasing power and the
limited access to a healthy diet and healthcare. These high malnutrition rates are also being
witnessed in Kenya and the Central African Republic (ICRC, 2022)
Climate change, particularly increasing temperatures, altered rainfall patterns, and climate
variability (including extreme climate events) will affect dramatically the productivity of crops
and their regional distribution in the next decades with severe impacts on food security (Porter et
al., 2014). Climate change is very likely to affect food security at the global, regional, and local
level. Climate change can disrupt food availability, reduce access to food, and affect food quality
(USDA, 2015). For example, projected increases in temperatures, changes in precipitation
patterns, changes in extreme weather events, and reductions in water availability may all result in
reduced agricultural productivity. Increases in the frequency and severity extreme weather events
can also interrupt food delivery, and resulting spikes in food prices after extreme events are
expected to be more frequent in the future.
Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways; including through changes in
average temperatures; rainfall and climate extremes with an important impact on soil erosion (i.e.
floods, drought, etc): changes in pests and diseases, changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide,
changes in the nutritional quality of some foods, changes in growing season, and changes in sea
level (World Bank (2008). Crop yields show a strong correlation with temperature change and
with the duration of heat or cold waves, and differ based on plant maturity stages during extreme
weather events (Hoffmann U, 2013).
The impact and consequences of climate change for agriculture tend to be more severe for
countries with higher initial temperatures, areas with marginal or already degraded landsand lower
levels of development with little adaptation capacity (Keane J et al, 2009). According to the Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO), about 73 million people in the region were already facing a
food crisis in 2019. Agriculture is an economic activity that is highly dependent upon weather and
climate in order to produce the food and fiber necessary to sustain human life. Not surprisingly,
agriculture is deemed to be an economic activity that is expected to be vulnerable to climate
variability and change. It involves natural processes that frequently require fixed proportions of
nutrients, temperatures, precipitation, and other conditions (IPCC, 2022). Agriculture faces a set
of biophysical and socioeconomic stressors, including climate change. Yet, the reality is that to
feed the growing global population, and to provide the basis for economic growth and poverty
reduction, agriculture must undergo a considerable transformation. Africa’s food production
systems are among the world’s most vulnerable because of extensive reliance on rainfed crop
production, high intra- and inter-seasonal climate variability, recurrent droughts and floods that
affect both crops and livestock, and persistent poverty that limits the capacity to adapt (Boko et
al., 2007).
Climate change threatens to adversely affect economic growth in Kenya, and endangers
Kenya becoming a prosperous country with a high quality of life for all its citizens (Siyan, 2023)
The impacts of climate change as a result of global warming have far reaching implications which
affect different sectors and actors. Kenya is already feeling the effects of Climate change. The
widespread poverty, recurrent droughts, floods, inequitable land distribution, overdependence on
rain-fed agriculture, and few coping mechanisms all combine to increase people’s vulnerability to
climate change (Siyan, 2023)
Kenya is very vulnerable to climate change with current projections suggesting that its
temperature will rise up to 2.5oC between 2000 and 2050, while rainfall will become more intense
and less predictable (relief web, 2019). It is clear that the tipping point for food insecurity in Sub-
Saharan Africa can be triggered by a combination of factors such as climate change, droughts,
conflicts, economic instability, and poor agricultural practices. When these factors converge, they
can lead to widespread food shortages, malnutrition, and famine. To address food insecurity in
Sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in Kenya, an adaptive approach is needed that combines short-
term emergency measures with long-term development strategies. This paper argues that to address
food insecurity in Kenya, a transformational approach is needed that combines short-term
emergency measures with long-term development strategies. Hence, the purpose of the paper is to
investigate how the application of Climate-Smart Agriculture practices would be the most suitable
adaptive tool for combating weather-induced food crises in Sub-Saharan Africa using Kenya as a
case study.
Study Area and Methodology:
The paper will investigate the impactofextremeclimateevents in agricultural production in
selected countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. The study will specifically focus on Keny. These
countries have all experience droughts, floods, and other extreme weather events that have had
significant impact on food production, availability, accessibility and affordability, leading to food
insecurity for many people living the regions.
Conceptual Framework: Climate-Smart Agriculture as an Adaptive tool
The conceptual model of this paper is using Climate smart agriculture (CSA) as a
framework for balancing multiple dimensions of agriculture and food systems in an era of climate
change: addressing agricultural contributions to global greenhouse gas emissions, vulnerabilities
to climate change impacts, and the relationship between agricultural productivity, incomes and
food security.
Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) refers to an approach that seeks to address the triple
challenge of food security, climate change adaptation, and mitigation, and enhance resilience in
farming systems. The concept aims toincrease agricultural productivityand incomes, build climate
resilience, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Climate-smart agriculture includes proven
practical techniques – such as mulching, intercropping, conservation agriculture, crop rotation,
integrated crop-livestock management, agroforestry, improved grazing, and improved water
management, integrated crop, livestock, aquaculture and agroforestry systems; improved pest,
water and nutrient management; landscape approaches; improved grassland and forestry
management; practices such as reduced tillage and use of diverse varieties and breeds; integrating
trees into agricultural systems; restoring degraded lands; improving the efficiency of water and
nitrogen fertilizer use; and manure management.
Potential of Climate-Smart Agriculture as an Adaptation Strategy
A growing global population and changing diets are driving up the demand for food.
Production is struggling to keep up as crop yields level off in many parts of the world, ocean health
declines, and natural resources—including soils, water, and biodiversity—are stretched
dangerously thin (World Bank, 2022). The food security challenge will only become more
difficult, as the world will need to produce about 70 percent more food by 2050 to feed an estimated
9 billion people.
Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an integrated approach to managing landscapes—
cropland, livestock, forests and fisheries—that addresses the interlinked challenges of food
security and accelerating climate change. CSA aims to simultaneously achieve three outcomes: 1)
increased productivity: Produce more and better food to improve nutrition security and boost
incomes, especially of 75 percent of the world’s poor who live in rural areas and mainly rely on
agriculture for their livelihoods; 2) enhanced resilience: Reduce vulnerability to drought, pests,
diseases and other climate-related risks and shocks; and improve capacity to adapt and grow in the
face of longer-term stresses like shortened seasons and erratic weather patterns, and 3) reduced
emissions: Pursue lower emissions for each calorie or kilo of food produced, avoid deforestation
from agriculture and identify ways to absorb carbon out of the atmosphere (World bank, 2022).
There are several cases studies on the application of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) in
Sub-Sahara Africa. In Uganda, a CSA project called "Enhancing Resilience to Climate Change
through Sustainable Agriculture" was implemented by the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) and the government of Uganda. The project introduced drought-tolerant
crops, agroforestry, and soil conservation practices to farmers in the districts of Lira and Katakwi.
The project resulted in increased yields and incomes for farmers, as well as improved soil health
and reduced erosion. The Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) program in Malawi: ISFM
is an approach that combines the use of organic and inorganic fertilizers, crop rotation, and
improved soil conservation practices to enhance soil fertility and productivity. The program has
been successful in Malawi in improving crop yields, reducing soil erosion, and increasing farmers'
income. ISFM also helps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and increase the resilience of
smallholder farmers to climate change.
The Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) program in Niger: FMNR is a low-
cost, farmer-led technique that involves systematically selecting and pruning trees to regenerate
degraded land. This technique has been used in Niger to restore degraded farmland, increase crop
yields, and improve soil health. FMNR has also been found to increase carbon sequestration and
biodiversity while reducing vulnerability to climate change.
Methodology
The paper will adopt the use review of literatures, quantitative and qualitative analysis of
data, and comparative assessment as the methodological tool to investigate how climate change is
exacerbating these weather patterns and making the capacity to build livelihood resilience to
address the problem of food insecurity.
Rainfall Pattern and Drought Impacts in Kenya
Figure 1: Monthly Climatology of Mean Precipitation in
Kenya (Source: https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org)
Figure 2: Drought Progession in Kenya (Source:
https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org)
Figure 4: Drought Impacts n in Kenya (Source:
https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org)
Figure 3: Map showing famine area in Kenya(Source:
https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org)
Food Insecurity in Kenya: Two Years Comparative Analysis
Figure 5: Acute Food Insecurity Situation July - September 2022 and Projection October - December 2022
(Source: IPC Integrated Food Security Phase Classification)
Figure 6: Acute Food Insecurity Situation February 2023 and Projection for March - June 2023
(Source: IPC Integrated Food Security Phase Classification)
Analysis and Implication to Food Insecurity
The analysis is based on the report gathered from (Relief web, 2022), according to the most recent
analysis, from July to September 2022 (lean season), about 3.5 million people (24% of the ASAL
population) are facing high levels of acute food insecurity – IPC Phase 3 or above, with about 2.7
million people in IPC Phase 3 (Crisis) and 785,000 people in IPC Phase 4 (Emergency). This is a
10% increase from the same period in 2021 where 2.1 million people were categorized in IPC
Phase 3 and IPC Phase 4.
The food insecurity is primarily driven by a combination of shocks, including a fourth successive
below average rainy season which was poorly distributed in space and short-lived which resulted
in below average crop production to near crop failure and poor livestock production; localised
resource-based conflict; and high food prices as a result of the war in Ukraine and low in-country
production. The most affected counties, representing 40% of the total country population in IPC
Phase 3 or above are: Isiolo (50%), Turkana (50%), Garissa (45%), Mandera (45%), Marsabit
(45%), Samburu (45%), Wajir (45%) and Baringo (40%). These are predominantly pastoral
livelihoods. (IPC, 28 Sep 2022).
The October to December 2021 short rains have largely failed, marking the third consecutive
below-average season across pastoral and marginal agricultural areas of eastern and northern
Kenya. In pastoral areas, very low pasture and water resources have driven atypical livestock
migration, rapid declines in livestock health and productivity, and excess livestock deaths.
In the current period, it is estimated that around 4.4 million people (27% of the ASAL population)
are facing high levels of Acute Food Insecurity – IPC AFI Phase 3 (Crisis) or above, of which
about 774,000 people are in IPC AFI Phase 4 (Emergency). Compared tothe same period last year,
this represents a 43% increase in population in IPC Phase 3 (Crisis) or above, while compared to
the previous analysis period (October-December 2022), the prevalence of population in IPC AFI
Phase 3 (Crisis) or above is similar – with a reduction of the population in IPC Phase 4
(Emergency).
Result and Discussion: Malnutrition as an effect of Food Insecurity
Figure 7: Kenya: Acute Malnutrition Situation July 2022 and Projection for August - October 2022
(Source: IPC Integrated Food Security Phase Classification)
Figure 8: Kenya: Acute Malnutrition Situation February 2023 and Projection for March - October 2023
(Source: IPC Integrated Food Security Phase Classification)
Discussion: Implications for Livelihood and Habitality
As of 31 December 2022, the droughtsituation in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands(ASALs) remains
critical in 22 of the 23 ASAL counties due to the late onset and poor performance of the October
to December 2022 rains, coupled with four previous consecutive failed rainy seasons that resulted
in an increase in the people in need of humanitarian assistance to 4.5 million people of which
approximately 2.14 million are children. Nine counties are in ALARM phase, 13 are in ALERT
phase and only one is in the NORMAL phase.
With the elevated likelihood of a fourth consecutive below-average season during the March to
May 2022 long rains, there is high concern that food insecurity will increase in severity and scale
in 2022, and FEWS NET expects 3-4 million people will be in need of humanitarian food
assistance in Kenya. Large-scale humanitarian assistance and livelihoods support are urgently
required to cover current needs in northern and eastern Kenya, and assistance should be sustained
throughout 2022.
An estimated 1.5 million learners in thedrought affected countiesneed support toremain in school.
Over 400,000 learners are impacted directly by drought with an estimated 66,000 learners not
attending school due to the drought. The main drivers of school absenteeism that is increasing the
risk of learners dropping out are: the migration of families in search for water; reduced water
availability in schools; the lack of school meals; the inability to pay school fees and children caring
for livestock.
Lack of access to safe water is affecting 4.416 million people who are in need of comprehensive
WASH interventions in the 23 ASAL Counties. In Mandera County, water coverage has fallen as
low as 17% in the worst-affected sub-counties. The level of the water tables has significantly
decreased, resulting in low yields, overuse and increased breakdowns of boreholes, further
exacerbated by the drying up of open water sources. Women and girls are having to travel further
(up to 15 km) and wait longer for water at boreholes (up to 6 hours), exposing them to heightened
risk of gender-based violence. Individual water consumption has reduced to 4-8 liters per person
per day in the worst affected areas, which is well below the standard minimum of 15 liters per
person per day.
Climate Smart-Agriculture as an Adaptive Tool to Livelihood
Violent conflict and climate change cross borders and have knock-on and indirect effects
in totally different areas to where their direct impact is experienced. Food insecurity, violent
conflict and climate change have generated a steadyincrease inforcedmigrationsince 2011.In2021
more than 32 million Africans were internally displaced, refugees or asylum seekers (African
center, 2021). An estimated 95 per cent of those displaced remain in Africa (William, W., 2019.
Migration often increases pressure on resources in host areas, which can produce inter- group
tensions and conflict, particularly in areas with a history of violence and pre-existing competition
over resources (Krampe, F. et al, 2021).
The agricultural sector holds significant climate change mitigation potential through
reductions of GHG emissions and enhancement of agricultural sequestration ((African Economic
Outlook, 2016). It is a kind of transformative adaptation strategy. Transformation as an adaptive
response to climate change risk opens a range of novel policy options and positions adaptation
firmly as a component of development policy and practice. Within the range of adaptationoptions,
transformation describes non-linear changes (Nelson et al. 2007; Wilson et al. 2013).
In addition, it also has significant role to adapt climate change. Adaptation alone is not
enough to offset the effects of climate change, and thusstill need to be supplemented by concerted
mitigation efforts (Vuren, D, et al, 2009). Mostly, when we implement adaptation measure, we
enhance mitigation capacity of particular area such as practicing different land use managements
(soil and water conservation measure, manure and fertilizer management) in the agricultural field
will help us to sequester substantial amount of carbon in the field and reduce emission of methane
and nitrous oxide which are the main GHG emission means (Yohannes, H. 2016). Therefore, the
management activities are interrelated and help us to adapt and mitigate climate change.
Agricultural activities are relatively affordable form of mitigation option, for which many technical
options are already readily available (FAO, 2009)
Reducing industrial livestock production and improving feeding and grazing land
management, Restoration of organic soils and degraded lands to increase soil carbon sinks,
improved water and rice management, Land-use change and agroforestry, increasing efficiency in
fertilizer production and behavioral changes of food consumers (reducing the meat content)could
also be main climate change mitigation measures in agriculture sector (Paul H, et al, 2009)
Climate change adaptation is a continuous process requiring location-specific response.
Adaptation should enable agricultural systems to be more resilient to the consequences of climate
change (FAO, 2011). Farming systems and farmers will differ enormously in their capacities to
respond to climate change (Yohannes, H. 2016). Differentiated adaptationstrategies and enhanced
climate risk management support to agriculture and farming households are critical to counter the
impacts of climate change (IPCC, 2007).These adaptation measures could include in particular the
choice and change of species and varieties, the adaptation of the field works to the calendar (more
flexibility), the adaptation of plant production practices (i.e. fertilization, plant protection,
irrigation, etc.) or the adoption of plant production practices that increase the soil organic matter
content or the soil coverage by plants, manure management and agroforestry practices (Yohannes,
H. 2016). Some of them discussed below how these practices serve as adaptation means:
Genetic Engineering: The genetic makeup of plants and animals determines their tolerance to
shocks such as temperature extremes, salts, drought, flooding, and pests and diseases.
Preserving genetic resources, including establishing gene banks and genetic engineering, of
crops, breeds, and their wild relatives is crucial in developing resilience to shocks, improving
resource efficiency, shortening production cycles, and generating higher yields per area of land.
The development of varieties and breeds that are tailored to ecosystems and farmers' needs is
essential. In response to the global food crisis in 2007–2008, Algeria, Egypt and Morocco
launched initiatives that emphasized development of the agricultural sector as a key pathway to
achieving food security. Egypt adopted a ‘Strategy for Sustainable Agricultural Development to
2030’,which aims to achieve food security by modernizing Egyptian agriculture and improving
rural livelihoods (Muhanzu, 2012)
Alteration of Crop variety
It involves switching from one crop variety to another in response to climatic stresses and
changes. Study done by Komba and Muchapondwa (Komba C, 2015), in Tanzania explained
that Tanzania’s farmers try to adapt climate change by using drought resistance crops.
Introducing Avena species (Ingedo) species in Ethiopia as fodder crop and through time it
replaces the dominant stable crop i.e., barley in the highland and serve as one means to adapt
climate change (Amdu, B, 2010). Morocco launched its ‘Green Morocco Plan’ in 2008 to
promote socio-economic development by boosting production of high-value agricultural
exports. Itfocuses on modernizing production methods and introducing climate-tolerant wheat
varieties. By 2021 these efforts were paying off and Morocco was producing three times more
wheat thanin the drought-strickenyear of 2020, and obtaining 58 per cent higher yieldsthan the
2016–20 average (Tanchum, M, 2022)
Soil and Nutrient Management: To increase yields, it is essential to have a sufficient supply of
nitrogen and other nutrients. This can be achieved by composting manure and crop residues, using
legumes for natural nitrogen fixation, precise matching of nutrients with plant needs, and
controlled release and deep placement technologies. The use of methods that increase organic
nutrient inputs, retention, and use can reduce the need for synthetic fertilizers, which are often
unavailable and contribute to GHG emissions through their production and transport.
Change in Planting Period: Change in planting period is another common adaptation to climate
change at the farm level, which largely involves altering the timing of farm activities to suit
climatic variations or changes. In Philippines, farmers adapt to the early onset of rainy season
through early cultivation of upland farms, which results in high agricultural production for the
season and higher household income from farm activities (Lasco, R., et al, 2009). Tanzania’s
farmers also used planting date changing practice to adapt CC [62]. In addition, according to
Rhodes et al. (2014), most West Africa counties such as Burkina Faso, Niger and Senegalalready
develop and implement a mathematical model for different crops to plant under changed climate
by shifting planting date to adapt climate change (Yohannes, H. 2016).
Resilient Ecosystems an Agroforestry: Biodiversity and ecosystem management can provide
numerous ecosystem services that can lead to more resilient, productive, and sustainable systems
while reducing or removing GHG. These services include pest and disease control, microclimate
regulation, waste decomposition, nutrient cycling, and crop pollination. Different naturalresource
management and production practices can enable and enhance the provision of these services.
Given the large contribution of land use conversion and the forestry sector to GHG emissions,
agroforestry presents an opportunity to counter the adverse impacts of climate change throughthe
joint action of adaptationand mitigation (FAO, 2010). Trees on farms enhance the coping capacity
of small farmers to climate risks through crop and income diversification, soil and water
conservation and efficient nutrient cycling and conservation (Lasco, R., et al, 2009).
Pest and Disease Control: Climate change is altering the distribution, incidence, and intensityof
animal and plant pests, diseases, and invasive alien species. Recent multi-virulent, aggressive
strains of wheat yellow rust adapted to high temperatures have spread rapidly in new cropping
areas, where well-adapted, resistant varieties are not available. Improved pest and disease control
measures are crucial in adapting to climate change.
Water Harvesting and Use and Livestock Management: Improving water harvesting, retention,
and water-use efficiency is crucial for increasing production and addressing irregular rainfall
patterns. Although irrigation is practiced on only 20% of agricultural land in developing countries,
it can generate 130% more yields than rain-fed systems. Efficient management technologies and
methods, particularly those relevant to smallholders, need to be expanded. Another approach is
livestock management. Particularly toadapt climate change farmers from central Africa implement
different adaptation strategies such as Breeding locally adapted livestock species, diversifying
livestock types, proper resource management practices and alternative feed production
technologies (use of agricultural byproductsor household and industrial waste products are needed
to produce feed (Ngeve, M. et al, 2014).
Conclusion
From the foregoing, climate-Smart Agriculture has the potential to be a powerful toolforreducing
food insecurity in Sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in countries like Kenya that are vulnerable to
the impacts of climate change. Through the adoption of climate-smart practices such as
conservation agriculture, crop diversification, and improved water management, farmers can
increase their resilience to climate shocks and build more sustainable farming systems that provide
food security for their families and communities.
But, the successful implementation of Climate-Smart Agriculture requires a multi-stakeholder
approach that involves collaboration betweenfarmers, governments, private sector actors, and civil
society organizations. The development and dissemination of appropriate technologies and
policies, as well as access to finance and markets, are critical components for scaling up Climate-
Smart Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Finally, it is important to recognize that Climate-Smart Agriculture is not a silver bullet solution
to food insecurity in the region. Addressing food insecurity in Sub-Saharan Africa requires a
comprehensive approach that includes addressing poverty, improving access to education,
healthcare and other basic services, and promoting gender equality. Nevertheless, Climate-Smart
Agriculture is an important part of the solution and has the potential to help millions of small-scale
farmers adapt to the changing climate and improve their food security
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